his article is about the learning activity. For other uses, see Reading (disambiguation).
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Reading
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GENERAL INFORMATION
Literacy • Functional illiteracy
Braille • Family literacy
TYPES
Close reading • Proofreading
Slow reading • Speed reading
Subvocalization
LEARNING TO READ
Comprehension
Reading disability • Dyslexia
Spelling • Vocabulary
English orthography
READING INSTRUCTION
Phonics • Alphabetic principle
Whole language
LISTS
Languages by writing system
Management of Dyslexia
view • talk • edit
Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols for the intention of deriving meaning (reading comprehension) and/or constructing meaning. Written information is received by the retina, processed by the primary visual cortex, and interpreted in Wernicke's area.
Reading is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas.
Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension. Readers may use morpheme, semantics, syntax and context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema (schemata theory).
Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations.
Reading text is now an important way for the general population in many societies to access information and make meaning.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Overview
* 3 Medium
* 4 Reading skills
o 4.1 Skill development
o 4.2 Methods
* 5 Assessment
o 5.1 Reading rate
o 5.2 Types of tests
* 6 Effects
o 6.1 Lighting
* 7 References
o 7.1 Notes
o 7.2 Bibliography
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links
[edit] History
Wiki letter w.svg This section requires expansion.
Although reading print text is now an important way for the general population to access information, this has not always been the case. With some exceptions, only a small percentage of the population in many countries was considered literate before the Industrial Revolution.
[edit] Overview
Currently most reading is of the printed word from ink on paper: a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook. Handwritten text may also consist of graphite from a pencil. More recently, text is read from computer displays, television, and other displays, such as mobile phones or ereaders. Short texts may be written or painted on an object.
Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging, or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are sometimes referred to as environmental print.
Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast. Words or images can be carved in stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing of an home appliance, or a myriad of other examples.
Chalk on a blackboard is often used for classroom settings.
A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on colors of letters and background, any pattern or image in the background, and lighting) and a suitable font size. In the case of a computer screen, not having to scroll horizontally is important.
The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words. A key technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to fixate on every word in a text, but instead fixate to some words while apparently filling in the missing information using context. This is possible because human languages show certain linguistic regularities.
The process of recording information to be read later is writing. In the case of computer and microfiche storage there is the separate step of displaying the written text. For humans, reading is usually faster and easier than writing.
Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will read out loud for the benefit of other listeners. Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communication. Reading to young children is a recommended way to instill language and expression, and to promote comprehension of text. Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable. See Alberto Manguel (1996) A History of Reading. New York: Viking. The relevant chapter (2) is posted on line here.
[edit] Medium
See also: Writing
Short messages can be put on (and read from) various media (including plastic, wood, stone, metal, etc.; the text can be written with ink or paint, or it may have been cut out, etc.). Longer texts such as books, magazines, newspapers, etc. are often available on paper (with printed text) or in electronic form on a computer storage device. In the latter case it may be read from an electronic screen; sometimes the user prints it to read it from paper.
[edit] Reading skills
Literacy is the ability to read and write; illiteracy is usually caused by not having had the opportunity to learn these concepts. Dyslexia refers to a difficulty with reading and writing. The term dyslexia can refer to two disorders: developmental dyslexia is a learning disability; alexia or acquired dyslexia refers to reading difficulties that occur following brain damage.
Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and nonalphabetic scripts are phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.[1]
[edit] Skill development
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page.
Main article: Reading education
Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat controversial[2]:
Phonics
Phonics involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of characters with sounds. Sometimes argued to be in competition with whole language methods.
Whole language
Whole language methods involve acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters or groups of characters that compose them. Sometimes argued to be in competition with phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to impair learning how to spell.
Learning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different process than learning to read a native language in childhood.
There are cases of very young children learning to read without having been taught.[3] Such was the case with Truman Capote who reportedly taught himself to read and write at the age of five. There are also accounts of people who taught themselves to read by comparing street signs or Biblical passages to speech. The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at age six by studying a book about boats during a transatlantic crossing.
[edit] Methods
Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate text. Very little is actually seen accurately. It is necessary to understand visual perception and eye movement in order to understand the reading process.[4]
There are several types and methods of reading, with differing rates that can be attained for each, for different kinds of material and purposes:
* Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if spoken. Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and comprehension, but other studies indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts.[5][6]
* Speed reading is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed without an unacceptable reduction in comprehension or retention. It is closely connected to speed learning.
* PhotoReading is a collection of speed reading techniques with an additional technique of photoreading to increase reading speed and comprehension and retention.
* Proofreading is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors. One can learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to do so at high rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others, while they may largely suspend comprehension while doing so, except when needed to select among several possible words that a suspected typographic error allows.
* Structure-Proposition-Evaluation (SPE) method, popularized by Mortimer Adler in How to Read a Book, mainly for non-fiction treatise, in which one reads a writing in three passes: (1) for the structure of the work, which might be represented by an outline; (2) for the logical propositions made, organized into chains of inference; and (3) for evaluation of the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This method involves suspended judgment of the work or its arguments until they are fully understood.
* Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review (SQ3R) method, often taught in public schools, which involves reading toward being able to teach what is read, and would be appropriate for instructors preparing to teach material without having to refer to notes during the lecture.
* Multiple Intelligences-based methods, which draw upon the reader's diverse ways of thinking and knowing to enrich his or her appreciation of the text. Reading is fundamentally a linguistic activity: one can basically comprehend a text without resorting to other intelligences, such as the visual (e.g., mentally "seeing" characters or events described), auditory (e.g., reading aloud or mentally "hearing" sounds described), or even the logical intelligence (e.g., considering "what if" scenarios or predicting how the text will unfold based on context clues). However, most readers already use several intelligences while reading, and making a habit of doing so in a more disciplined manner -- i.e., constantly, or after every paragraph -- can result in more vivid, memorable experience.
* Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) reading involves presenting the words in a sentence one word at a time at the same location on the display screen, at a specified eccentricity. RSVP eliminates inter-word saccades, limits intra-word saccades, and prevents reader control of fixation times (Legge, Mansfield, & Chung, 2001). RSVP controls for differences in reader eye movement, and consequently is often used to measure reading speed in experiments.
[edit] Assessment
[edit] Reading rate
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page.
Further information: Speed reading, English language learning and teaching, and Proofreading
Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on age and measured with different tests in English, French and German.
Note: the data from Taylor (English) and Landerl (German) are based on texts of increasing difficulty; other data were obtained when all age groups were reading the same text.
Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning (100–200 wpm); reading for comprehension (200–400 wpm); and skimming (400–700 wpm). Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading of most people. Skimming is for superficially processing large quantities of text at a low level of comprehension (below 50%).
Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading flexibly, slowing when concepts are closely presented, and when the material is new, and increasing when the material is familiar and of thin concept. Speed reading courses and books often encourage the reader to continually accelerate; comprehension tests lead the reader to believe his or her comprehension is continually improving; yet, competence-in-reading requires knowing that skimming is dangerous, as a default habit.
Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult levels. The table to the right shows how reading-rate varies with age [7], regardless of the period (1965 to 2005) and the language (English, French, German). The Taylor values probably are higher, for disregarding students who failed the comprehension test. The reading test by the french psychologist Pierre Lefavrais ("L'alouette", published in 1967) tested reading aloud, with a penalty for errors, and could, therefore, not be a rate greater than 150 wpm. According to Carver (1990), children's reading speed increases throughout the school years. On average, from grade 2 to college, reading rate increases 14 standard-length words per minute each year (where one standard-length word is defined as six characters in text, including punctuation and spaces).
[edit] Types of tests
* Sight word reading: reading words of increasing difficulty until they become unable to read or understand the words presented to them. Difficulty is manipulated by using words that have more letters or syllables, are less common and have more complicated spelling-sound relationships.
* Nonword reading: reading lists of pronounceable nonsense words out loud. The difficulty is increased by using longer words, and also by using words with more complex spelling or sound sequences.
* Reading comprehension: a passage is presented to the reader, which they must read either silently or out loud. Then a series of questions are presented that test the reader's comprehension of this passage.
* Reading fluency: the rate with which individuals can name words.
* Reading accuracy: the ability to correctly name a word on a page.
Some tests incorporate several of the above components at once. For instance, the Nelson-Denny Reading Test scores readers both on the speed with which they can read a passage, and also their ability to accurately answer questions about this passage.
[edit] Effects
[edit] Lighting
Reading from paper and from some screens requires more lighting than many other activities. Therefore, the possibility of doing this comfortably in cafés, restaurants, buses, at bus stops or in parks greatly varies depending on available lighting and time of day. Starting in the 1950s, many offices and classrooms were over-illuminated. Since about 1990, there has been a movement to create reading environments with appropriate lighting levels (approximately 600 to 800 lux).
Reading from screens which produce their own light is less dependent on external light, except that this may be easier with little external light. For controlling what is on the screen (scrolling, turning the page, etc.), a touch screen or keyboard illumination further reduces the dependency on external light.
[edit] References
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Powell D, Stainthorp R, Stuart M, Garwood H, Quinlan P. (2007). An experimental comparison between rival theories of rapid automatized naming performance and its relationship to reading. J Exp Child Psychol. 98(1):46-68. PMID 17555762
2. ^ Facts and fads in beginning reading: a cross-language perspective(1998), ppgs.
3. ^ Learning From Children Who Read at an Early Age(1999), ppgs.
4. ^ Im Auge des Lesers, foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung: vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude(2006), ppgs.
5. ^ Moidel, Steve. Speed Reading for Business. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational. pp. 23–24. ISBN 9780764104015.
6. ^ Rayner, Keith (1995). The Psychology of Reading. Pollatsek, Alexander. London: Routledge. pp. 192–194. ISBN 9780805818727.
7. ^ Im Auge des Lesers, foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung: vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude(2006), ppgs. 117.
[edit] Bibliography
* Carver, R.P. (1990). Reading rate: A review of research and theory. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
* Feitelson, Dina (1988). Facts and Fads in Beginning Reading: A Cross-Language Perspective. Norwood, New Jersey, United States: Ablex. ISBN 0-89391-507-6.
* Legge, G.E., Mansfield, J.S., & Chung, S.T.L.C. (2001). Psychophysics of reading. XX. Linking letter recognition to reading speed in central and peripheral vision. Vision Research, 41, 725-743.
* Stainthorp, Rhona; Diana Hughes (1999). Learning From Children Who Read at an Early Age. Routledge.
* Hunziker, Hans-Werner (2006) (in German). Im Auge des Lesers foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung: vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude (In the eye of the reader: foveal and peripheral perception - from letter recognition to the joy of reading). Transmedia Zurich. ISBN 978-3-7266-0068-6.
[edit] Further reading
* Bulling, A. et al.: Robust Recognition of Reading Activity in Transit Using Wearable Electrooculography, Proc. of the 6th International Conference on Pervasive Computing (Pervasive 2008), Sydney, Australia, pp. 19-37, Springer, May 2008.
* Briggs A., Burke P. (2002) MAS 214, Macquarie University, A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the. Internet, Cambridge: Polity Press.
* National Endowment for the Arts (June 2004). "Reading at Risk: A Survey of Literary Reading in America" (pdf)
* Littlefield, Jamie (2006). "Promote Reading: Share Books" Retrieved June 20, 2006.
* Shaywitz, S. E. et al.: Evidence that dyslexia may represent the lower tail of a normal distribution of reading ability. The New England Journal of Medicine 326 (1992)145-150.
* Bainbridge, J. and Malicky, G. 2000. Constructing Meaning: Balancing Elementary Language Arts. Toronto: Harcourt.
* Ontario Ministry of Education, 2003. Guide to Effective Instruction in Reading. Toronto: Queen's Printer for Ontario.
* Gipe, J. 2002. Multiple Paths to Literacy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
[edit] External links
Find more about Reading on Wikipedia's sister projects:
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* Lehrl, S., & Fischer, B. (1990) Measuring of reading rate
* Free reading grade level tests and the MWIA, a test to determine dyslexia
* Children of the Code: The History and Science of Learning to Read and Comprehend
* International Reading Association
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defenition of reading
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Visit the NCREL Home Page
Definition of Reading
For many years, three basic definitions of reading have driven literacy programs in the United States (Foertsch, 1998). According to the first definition, learning to read means learning to pronounce words. According to the second definition, learning to read means learning to identify words and get their meaning. According to the third definition, learning to read means learning to bring meaning to a text in order to get meaning from it.
Although these definitions reflect long-standing views of reading, current literacy research supports a more comprehensive definition of reading. This new definition includes all of the above definitions and places learning skills in the context of authentic reading and writing activities. It recognizes the importance of skill instruction as one piece of the reading process (Allington & Cunningham, 1996; International Reading Association & National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Maryland State Department of Education, n.d.; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). It also supports balanced reading instruction for all students (Allington & Cunningham, 1996; Au, 1993; Foertsch, 1998; International Reading Association & National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
References
info@ncrel.org
Copyright © North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. All rights reserved.
Disclaimer and copyright information.
Visit the NCREL Home Page
Definition of Reading
For many years, three basic definitions of reading have driven literacy programs in the United States (Foertsch, 1998). According to the first definition, learning to read means learning to pronounce words. According to the second definition, learning to read means learning to identify words and get their meaning. According to the third definition, learning to read means learning to bring meaning to a text in order to get meaning from it.
Although these definitions reflect long-standing views of reading, current literacy research supports a more comprehensive definition of reading. This new definition includes all of the above definitions and places learning skills in the context of authentic reading and writing activities. It recognizes the importance of skill instruction as one piece of the reading process (Allington & Cunningham, 1996; International Reading Association & National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Maryland State Department of Education, n.d.; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). It also supports balanced reading instruction for all students (Allington & Cunningham, 1996; Au, 1993; Foertsch, 1998; International Reading Association & National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
References
info@ncrel.org
Copyright © North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. All rights reserved.
Disclaimer and copyright information.
reading
The definition of reading:
For the purposes of The Partnership for
A complex system of deriving meaning from print that requires all of the following:
- The skills and knowledge to understand how phonemes, or speech sounds, are connected to print.
- The ability to decode unfamiliar words.
- The ability to read fluently.
- Sufficient background information and vocabulary to foster reading comprehension.
- The development of appropriate active strategies to construct meaning from print.
- The development and maintenance of a motivation to read.
- National Institute for Literacy | National Institute of Child Health and Human Development | US Department of Education |1775 I Street NW,
Learning to read and reading to learn are two of the most important missions of childhood. Parents, community members, and teachers must all maximize their efforts to make certain that each child has the opportunity to experience the great gift of literacy. These efforts will ensure that each individual has the prospect of a life filled with possibilities and a future of literate interaction in the world. By providing children equal access to well-designed, organized, and systematic reading instruction in our schools; we can assure ourselves that
what is reading comprehension?????
RC Handout 2A (1 of 2)
Effective Instruction for Secondary Struggling Readers: Research-Based Practices
READING COMPREHENSION
2010
What Is Reading Comprehension?
Reading comprehension is the ability to gain meaning from text. There are two
categories of comprehension: Literal comprehension and inferential comprehension.
Literal comprehension is the recognition and recall of explicitly stated information.
Inferential comprehension requires the reader to make conjectures or hypotheses based
on stated information, intuition, and personal experience, including cause/effect,
anticipating the remainder of a story, forming opinions, and making inferences.
• Reading comprehension is one of the most important skills learned in school.
– The ability to comprehend is essential to learning content area materials in
school. It also affects multiple aspects of students’ lives, such as employment.
Without comprehension, reading is meaningless and can be very frustrating.
• Reading comprehension is an interactive process involving the reader, the text,
and the context in which reading occurs.
– Reading comprehension results from the interactions among the reader’s
characteristics, such as age, reading ability, and motivation, the text
characteristics, such as structures and organization, and the context, such as
tasks, classroom environment, teacher’s knowledge and experience, and
instructional practices. To promote reading comprehension, these three
elements should be considered.
• Comprehension of text depends on the extent of students’ prior knowledge and
their ability to activate and apply it.
− Reading requires the ability to interact with text to interpret and construct
meaning before, during, and after reading by using strategies to integrate
information from the text with the reader’s prior knowledge. Students bring
to instruction a range of experiences and knowledge about many topics. Prior
knowledge significantly influences the reader’s comprehension of the
concepts and vocabulary in text.
• The goal of reading comprehension instruction is to help students learn and apply
effective, research-based strategies that are necessary to become effective readers.
RC Handout 2A (2 of 2)
Effective Instruction for Secondary Struggling Readers: Research-Based Practices
READING COMPREHENSION
© 2010 UT System/TEA
• Reading comprehension strategies are plans or procedures that readers can use to
gain meaning from what they read.
− There are a number of effective, research-based reading comprehension
strategies that can be applied before, during, and after reading to promote
comprehension.
• Reading comprehension can be improved via effective reading comprehension
instruction.
− Many struggling readers, including students with disabilities, show problems
with reading comprehension. As struggling students enter intermediate grades,
the problems become more significant. The meaning of reading materials in the
intermediate grades is more implicit than in materials in elementary grades.
(Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985; Baker & Brown, 1984; Bryant & Lehr, 2001; Gardill &
Jitendra, 1999; Heilman, Blair, & Rupley, 1998; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997; Mercer & Mercer, 2001;
National Reading Panel, 2000; Readance, Bean, & Baldwin, 1998; Texas Reading Initiative, 2000; Vail, 1999)
zulkifli gere.blogspot.com
Effective Instruction for Secondary Struggling Readers: Research-Based Practices
READING COMPREHENSION
2010
What Is Reading Comprehension?
Reading comprehension is the ability to gain meaning from text. There are two
categories of comprehension: Literal comprehension and inferential comprehension.
Literal comprehension is the recognition and recall of explicitly stated information.
Inferential comprehension requires the reader to make conjectures or hypotheses based
on stated information, intuition, and personal experience, including cause/effect,
anticipating the remainder of a story, forming opinions, and making inferences.
• Reading comprehension is one of the most important skills learned in school.
– The ability to comprehend is essential to learning content area materials in
school. It also affects multiple aspects of students’ lives, such as employment.
Without comprehension, reading is meaningless and can be very frustrating.
• Reading comprehension is an interactive process involving the reader, the text,
and the context in which reading occurs.
– Reading comprehension results from the interactions among the reader’s
characteristics, such as age, reading ability, and motivation, the text
characteristics, such as structures and organization, and the context, such as
tasks, classroom environment, teacher’s knowledge and experience, and
instructional practices. To promote reading comprehension, these three
elements should be considered.
• Comprehension of text depends on the extent of students’ prior knowledge and
their ability to activate and apply it.
− Reading requires the ability to interact with text to interpret and construct
meaning before, during, and after reading by using strategies to integrate
information from the text with the reader’s prior knowledge. Students bring
to instruction a range of experiences and knowledge about many topics. Prior
knowledge significantly influences the reader’s comprehension of the
concepts and vocabulary in text.
• The goal of reading comprehension instruction is to help students learn and apply
effective, research-based strategies that are necessary to become effective readers.
RC Handout 2A (2 of 2)
Effective Instruction for Secondary Struggling Readers: Research-Based Practices
READING COMPREHENSION
© 2010 UT System/TEA
• Reading comprehension strategies are plans or procedures that readers can use to
gain meaning from what they read.
− There are a number of effective, research-based reading comprehension
strategies that can be applied before, during, and after reading to promote
comprehension.
• Reading comprehension can be improved via effective reading comprehension
instruction.
− Many struggling readers, including students with disabilities, show problems
with reading comprehension. As struggling students enter intermediate grades,
the problems become more significant. The meaning of reading materials in the
intermediate grades is more implicit than in materials in elementary grades.
(Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985; Baker & Brown, 1984; Bryant & Lehr, 2001; Gardill &
Jitendra, 1999; Heilman, Blair, & Rupley, 1998; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1997; Mercer & Mercer, 2001;
National Reading Panel, 2000; Readance, Bean, & Baldwin, 1998; Texas Reading Initiative, 2000; Vail, 1999)
zulkifli gere.blogspot.com
A Brief Investigation
A Brief Investigation of Homeopathic Research
zulkifli gereIn the post “Why I Oppose Homeopathy” I referred to the research that the Maun Homeopathy Project cited to support their assertions. I noted that hey did not give internet links and that I did not subscibe to the journals in question so I was unable to comment in detail on the claims.
Since then, a reader has kindly emailed me copies of two of the papers. One (Are the clinical effects of homeopathy placebo effects? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials (The Lancet Vol 350, 20 September 1997 pp 834 – 843))appears to be the one that the homeopaths cite as evidence that homeopathy is two and a half times more effective than placebo.
It is true that the findings are that the combined odds ratio for the 89 studies entered into the meta-analysis is 2.45 in favour of homeopathy. However, when the 26 good quality studies are considered this drops to 1.66. Having said that, the authors’ interpretation is that the results are not compatible with the hypothesis that the clinical effects of homeopathy are completely due to placebo.
Unfortunately many of these trials involved self-limiting conditions, ie conditions where the patients will recover even if nothing is done. People recover at different rates so in a trial it is possible that one group happens to contain more fast recoveres than the other. When the trial also has a small number of participants, as many of these do, statistical artifice cannot be ruled out.
The authors conclude their interpretation by saying:-
“However, we found insufficient evidence from these studies that homeopathy is clearly efficacious for any single clinical condition. Further research on homeopathy is warranted provided it is rigorous and systematic.”
This was ten years ago.
The second paper is Homeopathy in HIV infection: A trial report of double-blind placebo controlled study (British Homeopathic Journal (1999) 88, pp 49 – 57). This studied 100 HIV+ cases, divided into the asymtomatic strata and the PGL strata. In each strata, half were placed in the placebo group and half in the verum group.
During the course of the trial, a number of participants dropped out so by the end the asymptomatic strata had 23 in the placebo group and 19 in the verum group. The PGL strata ended with 18 in the placebo group and 20 in the verum group. Again these small numbers mean the results are subject to statistical artifice.
Futhermore, one of the PGL placebo group dropped out because of the need for active therapeutic intervention for non responding febrile illness. Two of the PGL verum group dropped out because they developed hepatitis during the course of the study and wisely attended for other treatment. In other words, three of the participants were dropped from the analysis because they had got worse. Given that two of the three were receiving the homeopathic treatment, clearly their removal from already small groups distorted the results in favour of homeopathy.
This is some way from the rigorous and systematic research called for by the authors of the Lancet paper. Homeopaths always demand that someone else do the big and thus expensive trials that would be needed. But why shouldn’t homeopaths finance them. Pharmaceutical companies have to pay for their own trials, and homeopathy is big business these days, not the cottage industry it likes to pretend to be. Furthermore, Big Pharma has to register its trials in advance to avoid publication bias (the cherry picking of positive results). No such requirement is placed on homeopaths. Perhaps the research has been done, proved to be negative and thus “lost”? How would we know?
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On the Nature 1 of Reading
REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Explain why reading in English is more difficult than reading in some
other languages.
2. List and discuss at least two biological factors that can cause reading
problems.
3. If you are reading this book as part of a study group, assign three people
to make short presentations on the three environmental factors that impact
reading ability, instructional, socioeconomic, and early language development.
4. Many children come to school without the prerequisite skills for reading.
What are these skills and how might educators influence their acquisition?
5. Assume you are making a presentation to parents of kindergarten and/or
first-grade students. How would you distinguish the difference between phonemic
awareness and phonological awareness? How would explain the alphabetic
principle?
On the Nature of Reading––13
Copyright © 2004 Corwin Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Building the
Reading Brain, PreK–3 by Patricia Wolfe and Pamela Nevills. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press, www.corwinpress.com. Reproduction authorized only for the local
school site that has purchased this book.
01-Wolfe Nevills.qxd 3/19/2010 6:55 PM Page 13
1. Explain why reading in English is more difficult than reading in some
other languages.
2. List and discuss at least two biological factors that can cause reading
problems.
3. If you are reading this book as part of a study group, assign three people
to make short presentations on the three environmental factors that impact
reading ability, instructional, socioeconomic, and early language development.
4. Many children come to school without the prerequisite skills for reading.
What are these skills and how might educators influence their acquisition?
5. Assume you are making a presentation to parents of kindergarten and/or
first-grade students. How would you distinguish the difference between phonemic
awareness and phonological awareness? How would explain the alphabetic
principle?
On the Nature of Reading––13
Copyright © 2004 Corwin Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Building the
Reading Brain, PreK–3 by Patricia Wolfe and Pamela Nevills. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press, www.corwinpress.com. Reproduction authorized only for the local
school site that has purchased this book.
01-Wolfe Nevills.qxd 3/19/2010 6:55 PM Page 13
Cara Menginstal Windows Dari USB Flash Disk
banyak orang yang mengalami masalah ketika melakukan booting dari dari CD ROOM in dikarenakan oleh CD ROOM yang mengalami masalah...
cara terkini untuk mengistal windows adalah dengan menggunakan flash disk.. dengan cara mengeset bios di PC/LAPTOP anda terlebih dahulu dengan demikian untuk melakukan booting akan lebih mudah asalkan di mainboard PC/laptop anda tidak masalah.... selamat mencoba..
cara terkini untuk mengistal windows adalah dengan menggunakan flash disk.. dengan cara mengeset bios di PC/LAPTOP anda terlebih dahulu dengan demikian untuk melakukan booting akan lebih mudah asalkan di mainboard PC/laptop anda tidak masalah.... selamat mencoba..
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